“Yahwism also owes a debt to the myths of Ba’l. In the earliest poetic sources the language depicting Yahweh as divine warrior manifest is borrowed almost directly from Canaanite descriptions of the theophany of Ba’l as storm god. As a matter of fact, any discussion of the language of theophany in early Israel must begin with an examination of the Canaanite lore”

Frank Moore Cross: Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic: Essays in the History of the Religion of Israel, Page 147

The claim that YHWH was a volcano god is based on an anachronistic, superficial reading of the Sinai theophany, which is convincingly undermined by intertextual analysis, comparative mythology and geology. The evidence overwhelmingly places YHWH’s fiery imagery within the widespread ancient Near Eastern storm-warrior tradition, a tradition that borrows heavily from Ba’l myths.

Inter and Intra Textual Comparisons

In Exodus 19, YHWH “had descended on [the mountain] in fire. The smoke of it went up like the smoke of a kiln”[1]. At first glance, this seems to evoke volcanic imagery, but textual comparison challenges that reading.

But analysis must begin with what the text actually says. In Exodus 19, fire descends from the sky, but magma ascends from the earth. Reading volcanic activity into this is conjecture and not demanded by the text. Interpretation requires text-immanent analysis (meaning derived from the text itself) and Intertextual comparison (meaning drawn from parallel scenes elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible). Both are present and undermine the volcanic claim.

The Hebrew Bible is a composite work, so precision in source usage matters. Exodus 19 is a redaction of two competing textual traditions plus the text of a redactor[2]. The verse in question, verse 18, details the fiery aspect of the theophany at Mount Sinai[3] and shares a textual tradition with the story of Sodom and Gomorrah[4].

In Genesis 19, YHWH “rained upon Sodom and Gomorrah sulfurous fire out of heaven”[5]. The following morning, when Abraham arrives, he sees “the smoke of the land rising like the smoke of a kiln”[6]. The imagery is the same as Exodus 19:18, but the Dead Sea basin is not volcanic[7]. This points toward a literary motif of divine fire from heaven and smoke rising as the aftermath of divine judgment.

But the Sinai theophany does not begin in Exodus 19. The Song of the Sea[8] in Exodus 15 portrays YHWH taking command over the sea, which echoes Ba’l’s victory over Yam and Marduk’s triumph over Tiamat, the personifications of the primordial ocean. It is also one of the oldest Hebrew compositions, alongside the Song of Deborah in Judges 5[9]. The composer of Song of Deborah associates YHWH with a mountainous region in Edom known as Mount Seir. This composer also associates YHWH with storms, and in his view, YHWH is a god of southern origins, a storm god from the mountainous desert region of Edom in modern-day southern Jordan. Mount Seir is between the tip of the Gulf of Aqaba and the Dead Sea.

But as Israel journeys toward the Red Sea, the Israelites see a pillar of cloud by day to guide them on the way and a pillar of fire by night to give them light[10]. This is the Divine Warrior marching his people back to the mountain, where he will assume his divine kingship[11]. He asserts his right as king by imposing his suzerain treaty on his people. This suzerain treaty, the ten words or utterances, is known today as “The Ten Commandments”. Exodus 15:17 reinforces the idea that this journey is to the mountain of God. The mountain of God is also reinforced by Exodus 19:12-13, as anyone who touches the mountain will be put to death. This boundary enforces the purity law, emphasized in Exodus 19:15 by the command not to touch women, as a menstruating woman is deemed impure. Ba’l and Marduk also dwell on holy mountains.

The “pillar of cloud” should not be equated with smoke. Cloud and smoke, in Hebrew, are separate words whose definitions are in contrast. Exodus 14:24 describes the pillar grammatically as a single phenomenon, simultaneously a pillar of cloud and fire. These simultaneously opposing forces lead to narrative and theological ramifications. This pillar is also mobile, as Exodus 14 makes explicit. When the Red Sea is parted, the pillar of fire and cloud moves from before to behind the Israelites, causing the advancing Egyptians to panic. Volcanic plumes do not do that, making a volcano an interpretive stretch. The movement from before to behind in relation to the advancing Egyptians also implies close proximity. But Exodus 13:21-22 describes a pillar of cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night that does not depart from before the people, an unsurprising contradiction between Exodus 13 and 14.

This contrast reflects two distinct narrative traditions that conceptualize YHWH’s presence differently. One is a dual, morphing phenomenon; the other is two distinct manifestations. In Exodus 19:16, before the fire and smoke, the manifestation is a thick storm-cloud accompanied by thunder and lightning, making the storm-theophany explicit. Sinai is presented as the mountain where heaven intersects with earth, and the divine seat of power is emphasized by “a very loud trumpet sound.” The trumpet is a ram’s horn known as a shofar.

These events reflect a pre-Sinai storm and fire narrative building toward the Sinai climax[12]. Exodus 19:16 must be understood within this established storm-theophany framework and read in conjunction with verse 18. Comparisons must include the imagery of both. Verse 16 should not be sidelined in favour of a selective and anachronistic reading of verse 18. This selective reading of fiery elements while ignoring storm elements is a rudimentary error in hermeneutics.

Another textual parallel appears in Isaiah 29:6. The city of Ariel will receive a visitation from YHWH accompanied by thunder, earthquake, a great noise, with whirlwind and tempest, and the flame of a devouring fire. In Psalms 104, YHWH is “clothed in glory and majesty, wrapped in a robe of light; You spread the heavens like a tent cloth. He sets the rafters of His lofts in the waters, makes the clouds His chariot, and moves on the wings of the wind. He makes the winds His messengers, fiery flames His servants.” Part of this imagery mirrors the imagery of Genesis firmament that separates the waters from the waters with the phrase “makes the clouds His chariot” invoking the title of the Canaanite god Ba’l, the “Rider of the Clouds”[13].  Fire is a servant to YHWH’s majesty. It is interesting to note YHWH is “clothed in glory and majesty, wrapped in a robe of light.” This is a critically important phrase for context. The Hebrew word for glory is kāḇôḏ. The ramifications of this will be explained shortly.

Another textual parallel appears in 1 Kings 18. Elijah challenges the prophets of Ba’l to call down fire to consume a sacrifice. But Ba’l was a storm god, associated with rain and fertility, not volcanoes. The priests of Ba’l plead for fire. Why? Fire is an aspect of the Divine Warrior, which is a manifestation of the storm god tradition. Ba’l is the primary mythic background for YHWH’s theophany[14].  But what is this Fire from Heaven? Or more precisely, the sky.  Plain text reading is usually preferred, but euphemisms do exist.

After the prophets of Baʿl were defeated in 1 Kings 18, storm clouds gathered, and it began to rain, ending a drought. John Day notes, “fire from heaven” can be understood as lightning[15]. In the Elijah narrative, this would serve as a direct polemic against Baʿl and a celebration of Yahweh’s supremacy, since rain, storms, and lightning were traditionally associated with Baʿl. Day also connects the “fire” that destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah to lightning. Because Genesis 19 and Exodus 19:18 belong to the same narrative tradition, it is reasonable to conclude that the “fire” in Exodus 19:18 also represents lightning in Day’s view. The parallel description of thunder and lightning in Exodus 19:16 may reinforce this. But Day’s position is problematic as fire and lightning are distinct words in Hebrew, as are cloud and smoke.

Theodore Lewis[16], however, argues that this “divine fire” reflects the ancient Near Eastern concept of melammu. Melammu is not unique or specific to any one god and could be bestowed on and revoked from mortals if the god deems it so. Kāḇôḏ is conceptually similar to melammu, with the most obvious example being the Mount Sinai event. If Lewis is correct, and he likely is, Day’s interpretation of lightning is suspect; however, his conclusion of a polemic still stands. This brings us to the next subject.

Comparative mythology and the definition of melammu and kāḇôḏ.

In Genesis 3:24, fiery power reappears in cherubim and a “fiery ever-turning sword” guarding entry to Eden[17]. In Psalm 18, YHWH, in the presence of a trembling mountain, exhales smoke through his nose while fire emits from his mouth. But he is also enveloped by thick clouds, dark with water, and both the extremes of hail and burning coals break through the clouds, reminiscent of the dual imagery of Exodus 14:24 and the events of Exodus 19. Lightning and command of the sea are also present. This language is characteristic of a storm-theophany. YHWH “bends the sky and comes down”. Again, Ba’l’s title “Rider of the Clouds” is invoked. Verse 34 states, “he trains my hands for war”. This is again the Divine Warrior aspect of the storm god, preparing the psalmist to use a bronze bow. Exodus 15:3, the parting of the Red Sea, also states that YHWH is “a man of war”. Nissim Amzallag agrees that a storm god is the prevailing viewpoint, regardless of his affinity for arguing for the origin of YHWH from a god of metallurgy[18].

In Psalm 18, YHWH is depicted as mounting his cherubs. The poetic image conveys his power and mobility as a divine warrior. 2 Samuel 22:8-17 invokes almost identical imagery. Cherubs in the Hebrew Bible function similarly to the Mesopotamian lamassu, as protective guardians seen in Genesis 3. These cherubs and lamassu resemble a sphinx with wings. The cherubs protect the Ark of the Covenant in the First Temple[19]. The joined wings of the Cherubs in the First Temple are the seat of YHWH’s throne on earth, invoking the imagery of Psalms 18. Cherubs are tied to YHWH’s role as a Divine Warrior. Their imagery, presence, and placement around sacred spaces are symbolic and emphasize YHWH’s authority and divine power. Again, the literary and visual motif reinforces the “Divine Warrior” characterization of YHWH, which is a pre-exilic feature of his cult.

Lamassu are often associated with warrior deities, such as Aššur, the national god of Assyria, a god of war and represented as a bull. Imagery of Aššur depicts him as unmistakably enveloped in the previously mentioned. Aššur is the Divine Warrior by definition through his role as a god of war. This melammu or kāḇôḏ in Hebrew is a visible and enveloping radiance that could strike fear[20], but Assyria had no volcano god. Aššur’s appearance is not dissimilar from YHWH in Psalms 104 or his envelopment by fire in the Mount Sinai theophany, as the Israelites were also overcome by fear from the experience in Exodus and feared dying if they spoke with God[21]. Exodus 24:15-18 confirms the fire and storm the Israelites witnessed was “glory” or the kāḇôḏ, of YHWH, the kāḇôḏ explicitly stated in Psalms 104. Psalms 97 also speaks of YHWH’s kāḇôḏ and his relation to storm clouds, fire, lightning and mountains melting like wax. There are many more examples, both implicit, such as 2 Samuel 22, and explicit, such as the cited Psalms and Exodus references.

Frank Moore Cross notes this “storm theophany proper of the Divine Warrior”[22] later becomes the basis of Israelite kingship theology. The Divine Warrior is reinforced in the finds of plaster fragments from Kuntillet ʿAjrud in the Negev desert, dated between the late 9^th to early 8^th century BCE. These plaster fragments reference El and Baʿl as warrior gods[23], associating the Divine Warrior with both the Canaanite father of the gods and their storm god.

Kuntillet Ajrud, Plaster fragment

] When El dawned in . . . [

] the mountains melted [

] the peaks grew weak [

. . .

] Bless Baal on the day of wa[r ]

] The Name of El on the day of wa[r ]

Psalm 18 is not a Sinai reference, but its imagery is consistent with the Egypt-to-Sinai narrative, reinforcing the heavenly fire motif as an aspect of the storm-god.

But the ever-turning fiery weapon of Eden appears in several places. In the Sumerian myth of Ninurta’s exploits, Ninurta, the god of farming, healing, hunting, law, scribes, and war, during a time of war, rains coals and fire on men. This invokes the burning coals that rain from the sky in Psalm 18. Enlil, the god of the sky and storms, presents Ninurta with a club that can set mountains on fire. This imagery associates fire with the storm god, as the power was gifted from the storm god. This descriptive language of the Divine Warrior predates the language of the Psalms and carries similar imagery. This gives us the insight that burning coals and fire from the sky are associated with the Divine Warrior[24]. However, this should not be understood as a direct correlation but as shared motifs.

In the Ba’l-Yam cycle, the emissaries of Yam are described as having tongues like a fiery sword. Ronald Hendel proposes that the fire of the Garden of Eden sword is its own independent divine being[25].

The Canaanite god Kothar-wa-Khasis crafts and gifts magical weapons[26] that channel Ba’l’s own power over the storm, unlike Enlil bestows power to Ninurta. This gift allows Ba’l, who has been losing his battle, to finally defeat Yam. In the Enuma Elish, the storm god Marduk fills himself “with an everlasting flame” before defeating Tiamat[27]. Fire, lightning, and storms are symbols of divine might across the ancient Near East. Psalm 29 confirms this storm identity: YHWH commands water, thunder, and fire, parallel to Ba’l[28]. Even the Hurrian storm god Teššub, wields fire as part of his storm-warrior theme. But there is one more topic to approach.

Geology and the near impossibility of volcanic activity influencing the development of divine beings.

If we apply scientific reasoning consistently, the claim that Yahweh was a volcano god cannot stand. Interpreting the smoke and fire of Exodus 19:18 as volcanic activity relies on a superficial “it looks like, therefore it is” approach that prioritizes appearance over analysis. There is no geological evidence of volcanic activity in the Negev during the relevant period; the last known eruption occurred about 120 million years ago in the Middle Cretaceous[29].

The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program records the most recent eruption in the Levant at Harrat Ash Shaam in Jordan as dated to 2670 BCE[30]. The only eruption that could potentially fall within the relevant timeframe occurred in 1200 BCE at Jabal Haylan in Yemen,[31] but this site is 1,500 km south of the Sinai Peninsula.  The data does not support volcanic activity in the Sinai region during the biblical period. Attempts to associate these distant eruptions with Sinai are conjecture, compounded by the fact that Sinai’s basaltic terrain, which predates terrestrial life, is geologically inactive. Proposals linking Mount Sinai event to the Thera eruption of 1650 BCE in the Aegean Sea[32] also fail due to chronology and geographical distance.

Conclusion

If YHWH had originated as a volcano god, parallels should appear in neighbouring pantheons, as we see with storm gods like Baal, Marduk, and Teššub. The geological evidence cited in the Jordan infers that we should see the development of volcano gods in the Levant if the volcano god hypothesis is correct, but there is no obvious indication of the development of volcano gods. In fact, there is no evidence of the existence of volcano gods from the available literature of the time. Attempts to infer volcano gods from available literature is conjecture, and multiple lines of conjecture to support a hypothesis risk an increase in the probability of error. Comparative mythology, intertextual analysis, and scientific evidence all demand a more disciplined approach than anachronistic readings and superficial interpretations of fiery imagery.

The claim that YHWH was a volcano god is unsupported by textual, comparative, and geological evidence. In the pre-exilic period, YHWH functioned as a tribal storm god, a Divine Warrior, whose overwhelming fiery presence, His kāḇôḏ, was consistently interpreted through the literary framework of a storm theophany. This motif drew heavily from neighbouring Canaanite mythology, portraying YHWH as the supreme ‘Rider of the Clouds,’ rather than a deity tied to any specific volcanic cone. This makes sense as archeological evidence indicates the early Israelites descended from the Canaanites[33].

How YHWH should be understood in his pre-exilic biblical context depends on considering the Judahite or Israelite tradition. In Judah, YHWH, in his Exodus anthropomorphic narrative, appears to have been conceived as exercising complete control over the natural world, wielding opposing forces simultaneously in a manner that transcends ordinary nature. This is the quintessential definition of a miracle. In Israel, YHWH acts through nature and is portrayed as more transcendent and subtle than its Judahite scribal counterpart, visiting in dreams, such as the dreams of Pharaoh interpreted by Joseph in Genesis chapters 40 and 41[34],  hidden in clouds as he is in Exodus 19:9[35], hidden by a burning bush in Exodus 3:4[36], or the angel and Hagar in Genesis 21:17-18[37]

In Exodus, the Israelite narrative typically describes YHWH as manifesting in a single, specific form rather than manifested as opposing forces simultaneously. In either context, the ‘fire from heaven’ motif reflects YHWH’s divine and overwhelming glory, his kāḇôḏ, emphasizing his role as the ultimate storm-warrior rather than any connection to volcanism. This understanding, however, changes post-exile, where YHWH becomes more transcendent.

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[1] Exodus 19:18–19 (JPS Tanakh).

[2] Richard Elliott Friedman, The Bible with Sources Revealed (New York: HarperOne, 2003), 151–52.

[3]  Exodus 19 (JPS Tanakh).

[4] Richard Elliott Friedman, The Bible with Sources Revealed (New York: HarperOne, 2003), 59-60.

[5] Genesis 19:24 (JPS Tanakh).

[6]  Genesis n. 19:28 (JPS Tanakh).

[7] Nahum M. Sarna, Understanding Genesis: The Heritage of Biblical Israel (New York: Schocken Books, 1966), 142.

[8] Exodus:1–18 (JPS Tanakh).

[9] Judges 5:1-18 (JPS Tanakh).

[10] Exodus 13:21-22 (JPS Tanakh).

[11] Mark S. Smith, The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2002), 49-50.

[12] Frank Moore Cross, Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic: Essays in the History of the Religion of Israel (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973), 164.

[13] Mark S. Smith, The Ugaritic Baal Cycle, Volume II: Introduction with Text, Translation and Commentary of KTU/CAT 1.3–1.4 (Leiden: Brill, 2009), 72.

[14] Frank Moore Cross, Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic: Essays in the History of the Religion of Israel (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973), 157–158.

[15] John Day, Yahweh and the Gods and Goddesses of Canaan (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000), 76.

[16] Theodore J. Lewis, “Divine Fire in Deuteronomy 33:2,” Journal of Biblical Literature 132, no. 4 (2013): 791–803, https://doi.org/10.1353/jbl.2013.0057

[17] Genesis 3:24 (JPS Tanakh).

[18] Nissim Amzallag, Yahweh and the Origins of Ancient Israel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2023), 14.

[19] 1 Kings 6:23–28, cf. 8:6–7 (JPS Tanakh).

[20] Jeremy Black and Anthony Green, Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary (London: British Museum Press, 1992), 130–131.

[21] Exodus 20:15-17 (JPS Tanakh).

[22] Frank Moore Cross, Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic: Essays in the History of the Religion of Israel (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973), 157–158.

[23] Theodore J. Lewis, “Divine Fire in Deuteronomy 33:2,” Journal of Biblical Literature 132, no. 4 (2013): 791–803, https://doi.org/10.1353/jbl.2013.0057

[24] “The Return of Ninurta to Nibru: Translation,” The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL 1.61), accessed November 1 2025, https://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr161.htm

[25] Ronald S. Hendel, “The Flame of the Whirling Sword: A Note on Genesis 3:24,” Journal of Biblical Literature 104, no. 4 (December 1985): 671–74, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3260679

[26] Mark S. Smith, The Ugaritic Baal Cycle, vol. 1: Introduction with Text, Translation and Commentary of KTU/CAT 1.1–1.2 (Leiden: Brill, 1994), 98.

[27] Stephanie Dalley, Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others, rev. ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 251.

[28] John Day, Yahweh and the Gods and Goddesses of Canaan (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000), 95–97.

[29] Lev V. Eppelbaum et al., “Discovery of Microdiamonds and Associated Minerals in the Makhtesh Ramon Canyon (Negev Desert, Israel),” Doklady Earth Sciences 407, no. 2 (2006): 202–204, https://doi.org/10.1134/S1028334X06020097.

[30] “Harrat Ash Shaam,” Global Volcanism Program, Smithsonian Institution, accessed October 30, 2025, https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=231001.

[31] “Jabal Haylan,” Global Volcanism Program, Smithsonian Institution, accessed October 30, 2025, https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=231110.

[32] “Santorini Volcano, Greece,” NASA Earth Observatory, November 21, 2000, accessed October 30, 2025, https://www.earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/1415/santorini-volcano-greece.

[33] William G. Dever, Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From? (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2003), 54.

[34] Richard Elliott Friedman, The Bible with Sources Revealed (New York: HarperOne, 2003), 98-102.

[35] Richard Elliott Friedman, The Bible with Sources Revealed (New York: HarperOne, 2003), 152.

[36] Richard Elliott Friedman, The Bible with Sources Revealed (New York: HarperOne, 2003), 122.

[37] Richard Elliott Friedman, The Bible with Sources Revealed (New York: HarperOne, 2003), 63.